B. A. First Year


History of Human Society and Culture:
Paleolithic
The first or the oldest pre-historical culture is known as Paleolithic or Old Stone Age. The word Paleolithic has come from the Greek word ‘Palaios’ meaning old and ‘lithos’ means stone. Paleolithic refers to the pre-history of mankind covering the period from the first appearance of tool using human until the emergence of Mesolithic stage. Paleolithic people lived as hunter-gatherers without agriculture and without formal pottery production. The Paleolithic has traditionally been subdivided into three successive phases, namely
1. Lower Paleolithic age 
2. Middle Paleolithic age 

3. Upper Paleolithic age

Lower Paleolithic age
It is the most ancient stage of human being. It is said that the Aestelopithecus was raised in this age. People in this age had hunting and gathering nature. At the very beginning they had very difficult types of weapons. But later on they discovered, Fire, which gave various shape, size and easiness to them and their weapons. Commonly they had Hand axe, Awls, Flake tools. The Lower Paleolithic people used to hunt animals like horse, dear, rabbit etc. They used to live in caves. These people used to wear ornaments of Shippy shellfish, wood, stone and of bones. They had sign language to protect themselves from their enemies. They used to take the help of fire to protect themselves from cold and from their enemies. Especially women used to look their children and men used to go for hunting foods and required things. There was no development of art, literature etc. During Lower Paleolithic period many river valleys and traces were formed. People of this period preferred to live near the water supply area.
Middle Paleolithic age
The period of cultural history associated with Neanderthal is traditionally called the Middle Paleolithic in Europe and the Near East and dates from about 300,000 years ago to about 40,000 years ago. For Africa, the term Middle Stone Age is used instead of Middle Paleolithic. More technologically advanced tools appear in the Middle Paleolithic, with a developing aesthetic and religious awareness. Most of the excavated Paleolithic homosities in Europe and the Near East are located in caves and rock shelters. Quite a few home sites of early Homo sapiens were in the open. The hunters probably moved away in the summer to higher land between the river valleys. In Europe they used to depend on oxen, horses, rhinoceroses and deer, as well as bears, wolves and foxed for their food. African was mostly depended upon buffaloes and eland and also on shellfish.
Upper Paleolithic age
Middle Paleolithic age disappear in Africa and Southwestern Asia by 40,000 years ago at the latest and in Europe after about 35,000 years ago. Upper Paleolithic age replaced it. The last part of the Stone Age gave rise to the Upper Paleolithic culture, which covers approximately 1/10th of the time span of entire Paleolithic period. During this period the prehistoric man made his greatest cultural progress. This period shows diversified and specialized tools made on blades by replacement of the hand axes and flake tools of earlier cultures. During this period bone was also taken as a material for making tools. Early man of primitive types disappeared at this cultural stage and the man of modern type came into existence. This cultural stage also shows the beginning and flowering of the Paleolithic art. Upper Paleolithic peoples made many different stone tools as well as tools and ornaments out of bare, ivory, and antler; composite tools such as spears and arrows; and clothing from animal fur. Artistic expression, in the form of cave paintings and personal ornaments, is the most striking evidence in the upper Paleolithic for the modern human capacity for culture. The subjects of paintings are mostly animals. Upper Paleolithic peoples seem to have been more numerous and more widespread than previous peoples, surely because of a modern capacity for culture. Skeletons from this period show few signs of injury or disease. Upper Paleolithic people apparently participated in widespread trading networks. Life styles during the Upper Paleolithic were similar to life styles before. People were still mainly hunters and gatherers and fishers who probably lived in highly mobile bands. They made their camps out in the open and in caves and rock shelters. And they continued to produce smaller and smaller stone tools. But the Upper Paleolithic is also characterized by a variety of new developments. Most of the Upper Paleolithic people used to live in caves and rock-shelters. The settlement seems to have consisted of four ten like huts, probably made from animal skins, with a great open hearth in the centre. The bow and arrow was also used in various places during the upper Paleolithic. The faces and structure of these period men was very much developed. They are named as Homo sapiens. They were very near to the modern man. After the arrival of this age there came great progress in the field of weapons. So, some says this age to be prehistoric industrial revolutionary age.
Mesolithic Age
Mesolithic Age is said to be the bridge between Paleolithic Age and Neolithic Age. After the completion of Stone Age, this age came into existence. The culture of this age people seems to be much rich. Weapons were also found to be of various shapes, sizes and to the need. They used to make weapons not only of stones but also of woods. People used to hunt animals like dear, rabbit etc. Similarly they used to collect and gather food grains and various vegetarian foods from jungle. They started doing pastorals. At first they started keeping wild animals like dog, cat, dear etc and later on pig, sheep, horse, goat, buffaloes etc. But they could not do agriculture. Mesolithic people started cooking their foods. At their latter period they started setting for long period in particular places. They used to do painting and used to make clay pots. They used to dig dead bodies. The main contribution of this age to society is that it dropped out many of the technologies that existed during Paleolithic and developed new ones to give rise to the Neolithic culture. Mesolithic was a brief period in comparison to Paleolithic. It was a less distinctive period for the use of stone. The Upper Paleolithic economy of food gathering persisted in Mesolithic but fishing collecting were added. Similarly the base of farming was prepared during this period. Thus, Mesolithic stood as a well-defined stage of terminal food gathering. Mesolithic people had little material culture. They also acquired a few items of material culture like pothery, metal tools and stone beads for ornaments. They used to bury the dead bodies within the habitation area.
Neolithic
Neolithic is a Greek word, which means ‘New Stone’. The period since the discovery of agriculture to the raise of urban civilization has been known as Neolithic Age. This Age lasted approximately from 8000 BC to 3000 BC. Twentieth century Anthropologists define Neolithic Age in terms of domesticated plants and animals. Man was no longer a food gather, he becomes a food producer. Neolithic Age has great importance. It is the age, which gave birth to agriculture, people started to settle in one place, pasturualism got great progress, and new and modern weapons were made. Clothes, pots, political and religious development took place. This age was the death of Stone Age. People started believing in gods and demons. Kinship thinking developed. Society started to be formed. Labor Division in society started. Family relation started to be strong, male domination started, Village started turning to towns. Industrial and religious, political organization were formed. Literature and science started to flourish. Irrigation started. Neolithic Age gave rise to agriculture and sitting life. Concept of private property and various ritual practices were aroused. Neolithic way of life was vastly superior to the Paleolithic. While culture of Paleolithic was carried forward with a greater span of time, Neolithic culture advanced very quickly within a period of a few thousand years. Neolithic age gave birth to a state of culture in which food was planted and breed instead of hunted and gathered. The practice of fishing was improved during Neolithic period. The bows and arrows were widely used in hunting as well as in war. The most remarkable findings of Neolithic deposits are the skillfully made arrowheads and Celts. As a consequence of food-production, population growth was accelerated during Neolithic period. People had settled down in villages and tried to invest certain ways to make the life easier. The important developments that took place in Neolithic are:
1. Invention of pottery. 5. Development of Language.
2. Beginning of Religion. 6. Beginning of the art of weaving.
3. Building of houses. 7. Manufacture of boats.
4. Development of Art. 8. Development of social organization.